How Aviation Safety Works
Published by FlyingWith3 min readSources checked
Airline and government rules change. Check your airline's current rules before you travel.
FlyingWith editorial team
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Safety comes in layers: two-pilot crews with regular proficiency checks, aircraft certified to keep climbing after an engine failure, enforceable airworthiness directives, and accident investigations. The passenger's part is keeping a seat belt fastened when seated.
Scope: An overview using U.S. rules (FAA regulations and NTSB investigations) as examples. Other countries have their own regulators and rules. It isn't a statistical comparison of accident risk.
In this guide(7)
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Knowing how commercial aviation is regulated can make flying feel less mysterious. This guide explains several layers of the system, from turbulence procedures and crew requirements to aircraft certification, maintenance rules and accident investigation, using U.S. rules as the example.
Part of: Flying with Anxiety, Flying for the First Time
Official rules: United States (FAA)
What the FAA says about turbulence
The FAA describes turbulence as normal and frequent, but says it can be dangerous: passengers who aren't wearing seat belts can be thrown from their seats without warning.
FAA regulations require passengers to be seated with seat belts fastened when the airplane leaves the gate and climbs after takeoff, during landing and taxi, and whenever the seat belt sign is on. The FAA's advice is to keep your seat belt buckled whenever you're seated.
A table of NTSB figures on the FAA's page lists 207 serious turbulence injuries on U.S. airline (Part 121) flights from 2009 through 2024; 166 of them were crew members.
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Official rules: United States (FAA)
Two pilots on airliners
Under the FAA's rules for airlines (14 CFR Part 121), the minimum flight crew is two pilots: one designated pilot in command and the other second in command (14 CFR 121.385).
Official rules: United States (FAA)
Pilots are checked regularly
A pilot in command at a Part 121 airline must have passed a proficiency check within the preceding 12 calendar months and, in addition, within the preceding 6 calendar months, either another proficiency check or an approved flight-simulator training course (14 CFR 121.441). Crew members also complete recurrent training (14 CFR 121.427).
Official rules: United States (FAA)
Designed to keep climbing after an engine failure
Transport-category airplanes must meet minimum climb performance with the critical engine inoperative at several stages of takeoff (14 CFR 25.121). In the final takeoff segment, for example, the steady climb gradient with one engine inoperative may not be less than 1.2 percent for two-engine airplanes.
Official rules: United States (FAA)
Fixing problems across a whole fleet
When the FAA identifies an unsafe condition in an aircraft, engine, propeller or appliance, it issues airworthiness directives, which are legally enforceable rules (14 CFR Part 39). Operating a product that doesn't meet an applicable airworthiness directive is a violation.
Official rules: United States (NTSB)
Learning from accidents
In the U.S., the National Transportation Safety Board investigates accidents to determine their probable cause, and advocates for the safety recommendations that come out of its investigations. It doesn't investigate criminal activity. The NTSB says it generally tries to complete an investigation within 12 to 24 months.
General advice: applies wherever you fly
What this means for you
Keep your seat belt fastened when seated and follow crew instructions. That's the part of the system that depends on passengers. If flight anxiety is a concern, the pre-flight checklist for nervous flyers covers practical preparation.
Official sources
Rules and amounts change. Before you rely on anything marked as an official rule, check the source. These are the official pages we used.
- Turbulence: Staying Safe · Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
- 14 CFR 121.385: Composition of flight crew · Electronic Code of Federal Regulations (U.S.)
- 14 CFR 121.441: Proficiency checks · Electronic Code of Federal Regulations (U.S.)
- 14 CFR 121.427: Recurrent training · Electronic Code of Federal Regulations (U.S.)
- 14 CFR 25.121: Climb, one engine inoperative · Electronic Code of Federal Regulations (U.S.)
- 14 CFR 39.3: Definition of airworthiness directives · Electronic Code of Federal Regulations (U.S.)
- Airworthiness Directives · Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)
- The Investigative Process · National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB)
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